Understanding the Two-Dimensional Model of Emotional States

 Have you ever noticed how sometimes you feel excited and happy, while at other times you might feel calm and peaceful, or even tired and sad? Psychologists have discovered that most of our emotional experiences can be organized using just two main ingredients — how pleasant or unpleasant something feels (called valence) and how energized or calm we feel (called arousal). This idea is known as the two-dimensional model of emotional states.

The truth is that this simple model helps us understand the complex emotional world that lives inside all of us. And it’s not just theory — it’s supported by real science.

1. The Circumplex Model: Mapping Emotions in a Circle

The Circumplex Model of Affect, first developed by psychologist James Russell (1980), shows emotions as points on a circle. Imagine a clock face, but instead of hours, it displays emotions. On one side of the circle are pleasant feelings (like joy or excitement), and on the other side are unpleasant feelings (like sadness or anger). The vertical line shows how active or inactive an emotion feels — what scientists call arousal.

At the very centre is a neutral point, where feelings are balanced and calm. In this model:

• Valence runs horizontally — from unpleasant (left) to pleasant (right).
• Arousal runs vertically — from low (bottom) to high (top).

So, emotions like excitement are high in arousal and positive in valence, while depression is low in arousal and negative in valence (Russell, 1980).

Russell’s research used a clever method: participants sorted emotion words by how similar they felt. The results naturally formed a circular pattern, proving that emotions aren’t random — they’re structured along these two basic axes. Later studies by Feldman Barrett and Russell (1998) confirmed that valence and arousal are independent, meaning that one can change without necessarily affecting the other. For instance, you can feel tense (high arousal, unpleasant) or sleepy (low arousal, pleasant). They’re not opposites in mood, but rather, they occupy different spots in emotional space.

To put it simply, the Circumplex Model helps us visualize how emotions relate — and why it’s impossible to feel angry and sleepy at the same time.

2. The Vector Model: Emotions in Motion

The Vector Model (Russell & Carroll, 1999) builds on this idea but adds something dynamic — direction. Instead of just points in a circle, emotions are represented as vectors — arrows that show where an emotion is heading and how strong it is. In this model:

• Positive valence is linked with appetitive motivation, the natural drive to approach or seek pleasure (like curiosity or excitement).
• Negative valence is tied to defensive motivation, the impulse to avoid or protect us (like fear or disgust).

This means emotions are not just feelings but also signals for action. For example, fear might push you to run away, while curiosity pulls you closer to explore something new. The direction of the vector tells us what kind of behaviour the emotion motivates.

3. Core Affect and Emotional Episodes

Russell later introduced a distinction between core affect and prototypical emotion episodes (PEE) (Russell & Barrett, 1999).

• Core affect is your basic, background feeling — like a quiet emotional temperature inside you. You might not even know why you feel that way.
• A prototypical emotion episode, on the other hand, happens when you recognize the cause of your feelings.

For example, if you feel a vague sadness (core affect), but then realize it’s because you miss a friend, that awareness transforms it into a specific emotion — sadness as an episode.

This process shows how thoughts and feelings work together: the body first reacts (core affect), and the mind then labels and understands the feeling (PEE). It’s like connecting the dots between what your body feels and what your mind knows.

4. Real-Life Examples: How Emotions Fit the Model

Let’s place some everyday emotions inside this model:

Arousal (Energy)	Positive Valence (Pleasant)	Negative Valence (Unpleasant)
High Arousal	Excitement, Joy, Delight	Fear, Anger, Anxiety
Low Arousal	Calm, Contentment, Relaxation	Sadness, Fatigue, Gloom

The truth is that each of these combinations serves a purpose.

• When you’re anxious (high arousal, low valence), your body is preparing you for action.
• When you’re relaxed (low arousal, high valence), your system signals safety.
• And when you’re sad (low arousal, low valence), it often means you need rest or reflection.

There’s no such thing as a “bad” emotion — only messages that our brain and body send us.

5. Measuring Emotions in Science and Technology

Today, researchers use biometric data to measure arousal and valence — turning emotions into measurable signals.

• Arousal can be seen in your heart rate or skin conductance (GSR). High arousal means excitement, fear, or anger; low arousal means calm or focus.
• Valence is reflected in your heart rate variability (HRV) and breathing patterns — slow and steady breathing often means positive valence (calm happiness), while fast, shallow breathing suggests negative valence (stress or frustration).

This approach is used in user experience (UX) design and emotion analysis tools (Ebrahimi, 2020). By mapping biometric data on a Valence–Arousal chart, designers can identify when users feel stressed and adjust interfaces to create a calmer, more positive experience. In other words, this model helps technology feel more human.

6. How to Use This Model in Everyday Life

The two-dimensional model can also guide your emotional intelligence:

• Negative + High Energy (Fear, Anger): Channel it into constructive action — exercise, problem-solving, or communication.
• Negative + Low Energy (Sadness, Gloom): Start small actions to restore motivation — stretch, write, or reach out to someone.
• Positive + Low Energy (Calm, Peace): Enjoy it but stay mindful of balance — too much relaxation can slip into passivity.
• Positive + High Energy (Excitement, Joy): Celebrate it but remember moderation — intense joy can sometimes lead to impulsive decisions.

Knowing where your feelings fall on the valence–arousal map can help you make wiser choices instead of being carried away by emotion.

Conclusion

The two-dimensional model of emotions, through the Circumplex and Vector frameworks, teaches us that emotions are not random — they are organized, meaningful, and adaptive. By understanding where your feelings lie on the axes of valence and arousal, you can begin to see emotions not as problems to fix, but as messages to interpret.

In the end, emotions are like colours — each one adds richness and depth to the canvas of human experience.

References

Barrett, L. F., & Russell, J. A. (1998). Independence and bipolarity in the structure of current affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(4), 967–984.

Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(6), 1161–1178.

Russell, J. A., & Barrett, L. F. (1999). Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: Dissecting the elephant. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(5), 805–819.

Ebrahimi, T. (2020). Emotional state mapping using the Arousal–Valence model. UXRplayer Research.