Pragmatics, a key branch of linguistics, explores how people use language in real-life situations. It's not just about what words mean in theory (semantics), but how they function in context. As bilingual teachers in training, understanding pragmatics helps you guide learners not only in grammar and vocabulary but also in using language meaningfully and appropriately in various social situations.
1. What
Is Pragmatics?
Pragmatics
can be traced back to thinkers like Charles Morris and Rudolf Carnap (1934).
However, it gained greater visibility thanks to scholars like Stephen Levinson
(1983), who emphasized its scope by defining it as the study of "those
principles that explain why some sentence combinations—like 'Fred's children
are hippies' when Fred has no children—don't make sense in use."
Zufferey
(2014) describes pragmatics as the study of language in use and the behaviour
of its users, while Green (1996) sees it as the interpretation of intentional
human actions—verbal or nonverbal—to accomplish communicative goals.
2.
Semantics vs. Pragmatics
According
to Recanati (1987), semantic meaning refers to the literal meaning of
words, while pragmatic meaning depends on the speaker’s intention and
the context. Consider this example: A lifeguard throws a volleyball near a
swimmer struggling in the ocean. Semantically odd, but pragmatically, it
signals a rescue.
3. Key
Pragmatic Concepts
a)
Deixis
Deixis
refers to words like here, there, now, yesterday, you, me, which rely
heavily on context to be understood. For example: "I’ll see you there."
– Where is there? Only the speaker and listener know.
Types of
deixis:
- Personal deixis: me, you, him
- Spatial deixis: here, there
- Temporal deixis: now, then, tomorrow
b)
Reference
George Yule
(2014) defines reference as how language is used to identify something
or someone. For example: "Where’s the spinach salad sitting?" (said
by a waiter referring to a customer)
Words like he,
she, it, my friend, or names like Chomsky are understood based on
who is speaking and the situation.
c)
Indexicality and Anaphora
These
involve referring back to something already mentioned. Example: "We saw a
video about a boy. He was washing a puppy. It was enjoying the
bath."
d)
Presupposition
Presuppositions
are assumptions about what the listener already knows. For example: "When
did you stop smoking?" assumes the person used to smoke.
4.
Speech Acts
According
to Lyons (1968), an utterance is any stretch of talk. When we say
something like, “I promise to help,” we’re doing more than speaking—we're performing
a speech act.
- Direct Speech Acts: literal and explicit (e.g.,
“Did you eat?”)
- Indirect Speech Acts: implicit and polite (e.g.,
“Can you pass the salt?”)
Yule (2014)
also introduces the concept of face, or the emotional/social identity we
want others to recognize. Politeness strategies help maintain others’
face:
- Face-threatening: “Give me that book.”
- Face-saving: “Could you pass me that book,
please?”
Types of
face:
- Negative face: the desire for autonomy
(freedom from imposition)
- Positive face: the desire to be liked or
included
5.
Speech Act Theory (SAT)
a) John
Austin’s Theory
Austin
(1962) identified three levels:
- Locutionary Act: The act of producing sounds
and words.
- Illocutionary Act: The speaker’s intention
(promising, thanking, warning).
- Perlocutionary Act: The effect on the listener
(being persuaded, amused).
b) John
Searle’s Reformulation
Searle
argued that not all speech acts are explicit. A simple, “It’s cold in here,”
might mean “Please close the window.”
c) Paul
Grice’s Cooperative Principle
Grice
(1967) proposed that effective communication depends on cooperation, guided by
four maxims:
- Quantity: Be informative, not
excessive.
- Quality: Be truthful.
- Relation: Be relevant.
- Manner: Be clear and orderly.
d)
Relevance Theory
Sperber and
Wilson (1995) argued that communication depends on cognitive effort vs.
benefit. Listeners prefer messages that offer more insight with less mental
work. For example: “You’ve won $500” is more relevant and impactful than “You
may have won $10, $500, or $1,000.”
6.
Nonverbal Communication
It’s not
just about speaking! Communication also includes:
- Oculesics (eye behavior)
- Haptics (touch)
- Kinesics (body language)
Nonverbal
cues can regulate conversations, express emotions, or emphasize spoken words.
Think of how a teacher’s raised eyebrow can say, “Are you sure about that?”
without a word.
The truth
is that understanding pragmatics empowers you not only to explain what
language learners say, but why they say it—and how. It's a human,
interactive process rooted in real life, not just textbook rules. You’ll find
that even the smallest expressions carry emotional and social meaning, and by
teaching these nuances, you help students become true communicators, not just
speakers.
References
Green, M.
(1996). Direct and indirect speech acts. In S. L. Tsohatzidis (Ed.), Foundations
of Speech Act Theory (pp. 89–106). Routledge.
Levinson,
S. C. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge University Press.
Morris, C.
(1934). Foundations of the Theory of Signs. University of Chicago Press.
Recanati,
F. (1987). Meaning and Force. Cambridge University Press.
Sperber,
D., & Wilson, D. (1995). Relevance: Communication and Cognition (2nd
ed.). Blackwell.
Yule, G.
(2014). The Study of Language (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Zufferey,
S. (2014). Pragmatics. Edinburgh University Press.
Carnap, R.
(1934). Logical Syntax of Language. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Austin, J.
L. (1962). How to Do Things with Words. Harvard University Press.
Searle, J.
R. (1980). Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language.
Cambridge University Press.
Grice, H.
P. (1989). Studies in the Way of Words. Harvard University Press.
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